ALEXANDER’S EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN CAMPAIGN (332–331 BC)
After the fall of Darius III most of the
Syrian and Phoenician coastal cities surrendered only Tyre and Gaza resisted
Alexander. He besieged the Tyre for almost eight months, capture the city in
August 332.
Entering into Egypt
With the fall of Gaza after two months of
Tyrian capture, Alexander completed the first phase of his Asian adventure when
the last Persian satrap of Egypt and surrendered without a fight. Egyptians
welcomed Alexander’s army in ancient capital of Memphis as they had never
accepted Persian rule. Alexander publicly honoring the Apis bull, the living avatar
of Ptah, chief god of Memphis, and other Egyptian gods to avoid the errors of the
Persian predecessors.
Alexander visited the oracle of
Zeus-Ammon in Siwah about 300 miles west of the Nile, unseasonable rains occurred,
which made his visit a tale of miracle and romance. There he established his
first city Alexandria in April 331 and the decisive moment of his visit was
when the chief priest of the oracle greeted him as “Son of Ammon.” However,
Macedonian never accept Alexander special tie to a “barbarian” god.
ALEXANDER: THE KING OF ASIA (331–330 BC)
Alexander left Egypt decided to seek a
final and decisive confrontation with Darius III. Darius offered Alexander to
marriage his eldest daughter, cession of all territory west of the Euphrates
River but Alexander refused all.
On October 1, 331 BC, the Alexander’s
armies met Darius III armies, at Gaugamela in northeastern Iraq. Darius fled
the battlefield to sought refuge in eastern Iran and the battle ended with an
attack by Alexander and the companion cavalry on the center of the Persian army
just like in the battle of Issus.
Till the mid of October, 331 Alexander
captured Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis and Macedonian troops started calling
him “The King of Asia”. Alexander rewarded the satraps of Babylonia and
Susa by leaving them in their positions, who had surrendered. The Battle of
Gaugamela is the best known battle in Greek history.
Persepolis was the spiritual center of
the Persian Empire therefore; Despite its surrender Alexander burned Persepolis
in revenge for the Persians’ destruction of Athens in 480.
ALEXANDER IN CENTRAL ASIA
Death of Darius (330 – 329 BC)
Darius had fled eastward from Media,
Ecbatana and its treasures to fall into Alexander’s hands but Alexander raced
after him. But before he could overtake the fleeing Great King, Darius III was
assassinated by Bessus, the satrap of Bactria and assumed the throne of Persia
as Artaxerxes IV.
Alexander played clever and effective
strategy, he brought back Darius’ body to Persia and buried with full royal
honors. Thereby spread a rumor that Darius’ last wish had been that Alexander
avenge him. In spring of 329, Bessus’ fellow betrayed and handed over him to
Alexander in exchange for a pardon and confirmation in their positions.
Alexander showing himself as successor of the Achaemenids in front of Persian,
he handed over Bessus over to Persian Nobles for trial and execution as a
regicide.
Bactria and Sogdiana Revolt (330 – 327
BC)
Alexander become a mythical hero as he marched
farther to east but unfortunately, Alexander was unaware of conditions in
eastern Iran, their close ties with the peoples Scythians and complex tribal
relations in the region. This ignorance resulted in ignition of rebellion in
Sogdiana and Bactria which lasted almost three years, when he tried to
establish a controlled border at the Jaxartes River between Sogdiana and
Scythia.
During this Alexander faced worst
military defeats which forced him change strategy. Alexander appointed Greek
and Macedonian satraps by replacing Persian.
Macedonian Turmoil and Iranians Influence
According to the historian it was the
first time in the history that Greek or Macedonian army had campaigned for so
long or so far away from home. That’s why after Darius’ death Macedonian army
became more reluctant to advance ever farther into Asia. The struggle to
overcome rebellion in Bactria and Sogdiana, the growing influence of Iranians
and Iranian practices at court increased the frustration in Macedonian troops
for home. In the spring of 327, Alexander’s marriage to Roxane, the daughter of
a powerful Sogdian noble further boosted the dissuade.
Although Alexander’s marriage to the
daughter of one of the principal tribal chieftains in Bactria and Sogdiana
which was the confirmation all political and military support of the Persian
people. But the fact remained to Macedonian troops that the potential mother of
their king’s successor was not a Macedonian or even a Greek but an Iranian!
Ancient and modern historian believe that
Alexander put a demand for the ritual prostration known as proskynesis from all
members of his court for claim to be son of Ammon. A biographer Plutarch,
thought that Alexander hoped to use proskynesis as a device to dominate his
eastern subjects but the act was not supported by Macedonian members of his
court. Which further lead to open resistance to Alexander’s policies and even
conspiracies against his life.
In late 330, Parmenio’s son, Philotas,
the commander of the cavalry was executed on failing to inform Alexander of an
alleged plot to kill him. Alexander forthwith took prompt actions on possible
conspiracies against him by ordering the assassination of Philotas’ father
Parmenio and execution Lyncestis, a son-in-law of Antipater. He even imposed censorship
on the correspondence of his troops. In
autumn 328 while drinking Alexander murdered Cleitus the Black, who had saved
his life at the Granicus, just criticizing on Alexander for accommodating the
Persians and his belittling the contribution of Macedonian troops to his
successes.
Approximately seven years of hard fighting and suffering, Sogdiana and Bactria had been secured by the summer of 327. During this period major changes appeared in Alexander’s court and army. Such as to cope the upcoming challenges and declining supply of Macedonian and Greek troops Alexander extensively recruited Iranian units in army. Similarly, in court Macedonian “old guard” had been replaced by Perdiccas, Craterus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy but their loyalty to Alexander remained unchallenged in the history.
To Be Continued......